OU UG English Sem 1 notes new syllabus w.e.f 2025-26

OU UG English Sem 1 new syllabus

w. e. f. 2025-26

New Textbook from 2025-27

Sem 1

Sem 2

Unit -1 Poetry

Poem

Sonnet 30

When to the sessions of sweet silent thought

Willian Shakespeare

Telugu explanation video

Line by line explanation in English

When to the sessions of sweet silent thought

I summon up remembrance of things past,

I sigh the lack of many a thing I sought,

And with old woes new wail my dear time's waste:

Then can I drown an eye, unused to flow,

For precious friends hid in death's dateless night,

And weep afresh love's long since cancelled woe,

And moan the expense of many a vanished sight:

Then can I grieve at grievances foregone,

And heavily from woe to woe tell o'er

The sad account of fore-bemoaned moan,

Which I new pay as if not paid before.

But if the while I think on thee, dear friend,

All losses are restor'd and sorrows end.

Summary of the poem.

About the poet

William Shakespeare (1564–1616) was an English poet, playwright and actor. He is regarded as the greatest playwright and poet in the English language.

He is often called ' Bard of Avon'.He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, England. He wrote 38 plays and 154 sonnets. Shakespeare’s sonnets, written in the 1590s and published in 1609, explore themes of love, time, mortality, beauty, and human emotion with unparalleled depth. His greatest tragedies are "Macbeth, Othello, Romeo and Juliet and King Lear"

The poem (sonnet) consists of three quatrains and a couplet, with the rhyme scheme ABAB CDCD EFEF GG .

About the poem

In the first quartain,the speaker begins by describing moments of quiet reflection, likened to a courtroom session. He begins to recall memories from the past. These memories bring back sorrow for missed opportunities and unfulfilled dreams. He feels regret for things he once desired but never achieved, and he feels that his valuable time has been wasted.

In the second quatrain, the speaker becomes more emotional as he reflects on the people he has lost. He says that even though he may not cry often, in these moments of memory, he sheds tears for beloved friends who have died. He also feels the old pain fresh as if for the first time.

In the third quatrain, the poet continues to express how, during these reflections, he re-experiences past griefs. He mourns again the sorrows he had already cried over and feels as though he is paying an emotional debt all over again. This shows that old wounds still affect him and that emotional pain doesn’t always fade with time.

However, in the final couplet, the tone of the poem shifts dramatically. The speaker says that whenever he thinks about a dear friend, all his sorrows vanish and all his losses seem to be restored. The thought of this beloved person is so powerful that it brings comfort and joy that erase the pain of the past.

The couplet introduces the transformative power of love or friendship, which acts as a balm for all sorrows, highlighting Shakespeare’s belief in the restorative nature of human relationships.

Glossary

1. Sessions =A formal gathering or sitting, as in a court of law where matters are judged or deliberated. In the poem, "sessions" metaphorically refers to the speaker’s introspective moments of quiet reflection, where memories are summoned and judged like cases in a courtroom.

2. Sweet= Pleasing or delightful

3. Silent=Quiet, without sound, implying introspection or solitude

4. Summon= deliberately, as one might summon witnesses in a trial.రమ్మని ఆజ్ఞాపించు,పిలువు

5. Remembrance=the act of remembering or recalling past events or experiences.జ్ఞాపకం

6. Sigh= A deep, audible exhalation expressing sorrow, regret, or longing.నిట్టూర్పు

Lack=absence or deficiency of something desired or needed.

8. Sought=(Past tense of seek) to have pursued or strived for.అన్వేషించు/ ఏదైనా కనుగొనడానికి లేదా పొందడానికి, ముఖ్యంగా భౌతిక వస్తువు కానిదానిని/ కోరుకుంటారు,

9. Woes=Sorrows, or troubles. బాధలు

10. Wail= To express grief or sorrow audibly, often with cries or lamentations.ఏడుపు/విలపించు

11. Dear= Precious, valuable

12. Waste= loss or squandering of something valuable, in this case, time.

13. Drown=flood or overwhelm, here used metaphorically to describe excessive weeping.మునుగు

14. Unused= Not accustomed or not typically inclined.

15. Flow= To stream or run, referring to tears.

16. Precious= Highly valued or cherished.విలువైన

17. Dateless= Without end, eternal, or timeless.

18. Night=A metaphor for death, evoking darkness and finality.

19. Afresh=Anew or again, as if for the first time.

20. Cancelled=Nullified, resolved, or no longer relevant

21. Woe= Deep sorrow or distress.బాధలు

22. Moan=: To lament or express grief audibly.బాధతో మూలుగు,/వేదన

23. Expense= Cost or loss, often emotional or intangible.

24. Vanished= Disappeared or gone forever.మాయమైపోయి

25. Grieve=To feel or express deep sorrow దుఃఖించు/విలపించు

26. Grievances=Wrongs, complaints, or causes of sorrow ఫిర్యాదుల

27. Foregone=Past or gone before.మునుపటి / గతించిన

28. Heavily=with great weight, sorrow, or burden.

29. Tell o’er= count or recount, as in tallying items.

30. Account=A record or reckoning, often financial or emotional

31. Fore-bemoaned= Previously lamented or mourned ముందుగానే బాధపడిన

32. Restor’d= Restored or made whole again.పునరుద్ధరించబడింది

33. Sorrows= Griefs, pains, or emotional distress.

దుఃఖాలు

Literary Devices

1. Metaphor

“When to the sessions of sweet silent thought / I summon up remembrance of things past”

→ The speaker compares his reflection to a courtroom trial, where he reviews past grievances like a judge reviewing old cases

2. Alliteration

Alliteration is a literary device that reflects repetition in two or more nearby words of initial consonant sounds. Alliteration does not refer to the repetition of consonant letters that begin words, but rather the repetition of the consonant sound at the beginning of words.

“sessions of sweet silent thought”

→ The repetition of the “s” sound

“Then can I grieve at grievances foregone.”

→ The repeated “g” sounds

3. Personification

Personification is a figure of speech in which an idea or thing is given human attributes and/or feelings or is spoken of as if it were human. Personification is a common form of metaphor in that human characteristics are attributed to nonhuman things

“I sigh the lack of many a thing I sought.”

→ Time is personified as something that steals dreams and opportunities, reinforcing the theme of regret.

“For precious friends hid in death’s dateless night”

→ Death is personified as a never-ending night, emphasising its permanence and inescapability.

4. The Volta (Shift in Tone) A Volta is a turn or transition in a sonnet's main argument, theme, or tone.

“But if the while I think on thee, dear friend, / All losses are restor’d and sorrows end.”

→ The dramatic shift from sorrow to joy highlights the redemptive power of love and companionship.

Prose -Unit 1

THE APOLOGY OF SOCRATES

Plato

About the author

The Apology of Socrates was written by the famous Greek philosopher Plato (c. 4 BCE), a friend and disciple of Socrates (469-399 BCE) to recount his teacher's during his trial in Athens in 399 BC. Socrates left no written work and his teach only available through the accounts of his students Plato and Xenophon. . The text below is a translation by Benjamin Jowett, a renowned classical teacher, translator and theologian.

1. Who was the main accuser of Socrates at his trial?

The main accuser was Meletus, supported by Anytus and Lycon.

2. What kind of wisdom does Socrates say he has?

Socrates claims he has human wisdom – knowing that he does not know everything.

3. Which god's oracle said that no one was wiser than Socrates?

The oracle of Apollo at Delphi.

4. Why did Socrates question politicians, poets and craftsmen?

To test the oracle’s words and see if anyone was wiser than him.

5. Why does Socrates say he cannot stop doing philosophy?

He believes it is his divine duty from God to question and guide people toward truth and virtue.

6. What does Socrates ask the people to do if his sons forget about virtue?

He asks them to criticize and correct his sons as he did with others.

7. What charge did Meletus bring against Socrates?

Corrupting the youth and not believing in the gods of Athens.

8. What does Socrates say about the fear of death?

He says fearing death is ignorance because no one knows if death is a bad thing or a blessing.

9. What did Socrates learn from his experience with the artisans?

That artisans had useful skills, but many wrongly thought this made them wise in all matters.

10. What punishment did the jury finally sentence Socrates to?

Death by drinking poison hemlock.

1. Why did the oracle at Delphi say Socrates was the wisest man?

The oracle said this because Socrates recognized his own ignorance, unlike others who thought they knew everything. True wisdom, according to the oracle, is knowing the limits of one’s knowledge.

2. How did Socrates try to find out if others were wiser than him?

He questioned politicians, poets, and craftsmen. He found that though they had skills or fame, they lacked true wisdom because they thought they knew what they didn’t.

3. How does Socrates defend himself against the charge of corrupting the youth?

Socrates argues he never corrupted anyone knowingly. If he did so unknowingly, he should be corrected, not punished. He also says many young men improved through questioning, and no one directly testified that he harmed them.

4. Why does Socrates compare himself to a gadfly in his speech?

He compares himself to a gadfly that stings a lazy horse. Just as the gadfly keeps the horse awake, Socrates keeps Athens alert, questioning, and striving for moral improvement.

5. Is Socrates an atheist? Explain with reference to the text.

No, Socrates is not an atheist. He says he believes in spiritual beings, which implies belief in divine powers. His mission from Apollo’s oracle also shows his faith in the gods.

1. How does Socrates use the story of the oracle at Delphi to explain his mission in Athens, and what does this say about his understanding of wisdom?

Socrates explains that when the oracle at Delphi declared him the wisest man, he was puzzled because he did not consider himself wise. To test the oracle’s words, he began questioning respected citizens—politicians, poets, and craftsmen. He found that while they were skilled in their fields, they falsely believed they had complete wisdom. Socrates realized his wisdom lay in recognizing his ignorance. This became his life’s mission: to expose false knowledge and encourage people to seek true wisdom. He saw philosophy as a divine duty, not a profession. His understanding of wisdom was humble: not having all answers, but being aware of human limits. By constantly questioning, Socrates sought to guide Athenians toward self-knowledge and moral improvement, fulfilling the oracle’s message.

2. What are Socrates's views on death and justice, and how do these beliefs shape his attitude during the trial that he faced?

Socrates believes death should not be feared because nobody knows whether it is harmful or beneficial. He suggests death could be either a peaceful sleep or a journey to meet other souls, both of which are not frightening. On justice, Socrates insists that one must never do wrong, even to save one’s life. He refuses to abandon philosophy, even if it means death, because obeying God and truth is more important than obeying men. These views make him fearless and calm during the trial. Instead of begging for mercy, he stands firm in his principles. He accepts the death sentence with dignity, showing that living justly is more important than living at all.

3. Discuss the theme of civic duty in The Apology. Does Socrates consider himself a good citizen of Athens? Why or why not?

Yes, Socrates considers himself a good citizen, though in an unusual way. He does not serve Athens by holding office or making laws, but by questioning and guiding its citizens toward virtue. He compares himself to a gadfly sent by the gods to keep Athens awake and alert. His civic duty is to challenge complacency and push people to think about justice, truth, and goodness. Unlike others who seek wealth or power, Socrates works for the moral improvement of the city. He even risks his life to defend his mission, showing deep loyalty to Athens. However, his critics see him as troublesome and disrespectful of traditions. Despite this, Socrates argues that true service to the city is not flattery, but helping citizens examine their lives. In this way, he shows that being a good citizen means working for the soul of the city, not just its laws or politics.

Note :-Read the summary below for the examination

Summary of Plato’s "Apology of Socrates"

About the writer:-

Plato (427–347 BCE), one of the greatest philosophers of ancient Greece, was a student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle. His writings shaped Western philosophy and political thought. Among his early works is The Apology, which is not an apology in the modern sense, but a defense speech given by Socrates at his trial in 399 BCE (from the Greek *apologia*, meaning defense) . Plato, who was present at the trial, records Socrates’ arguments with clarity and power.The present text is translated by Benjamin Jowett in 1899.

About the essay:-

Socrates was charged by three main accusers: Meletus, Anytus, and Lycon. The charges against him were twofold: first, that he was corrupting the youth of Athens by encouraging them to question traditions and authority; and second, impiety, that he did not believe in the gods of the city but introduced new spiritual beings. These accusations reflected the uneasiness of Athenian leaders, who saw Socrates’ method of questioning as a threat to public order.

In his defense, Socrates explains that he has never knowingly corrupted anyone, and if he had done so, he should be corrected rather than punished. He also argues that he does believe in divine powers, pointing to his mission from the god Apollo, whose oracle at Delphi declared him the wisest man. Socrates claims that his wisdom lies in knowing his own ignorance and in questioning others who falsely think they are wise.

Socrates explains that when the oracle at Delphi declared him the wisest man, he was puzzled because he did not consider himself wise. To test the oracle’s words, he began questioning respected citizens—politicians, poets, and craftsmen. He found that while they were skilled in their fields, they falsely believed they had complete wisdom. Socrates realized his wisdom lay in recognizing his ignorance. This became his life’s mission: to expose false knowledge and encourage people to seek true wisdom. He compares himself to a gadfly whose role is to stir Athens into self-examination. His civic duty is to challenge complacency and push people to think about justice, truth, and goodness. Unlike others who seek wealth or power, Socrates works for the moral improvement of the city.

Socrates say he cannot stop doing philosophy as he believes it is his divine duty from God to question and guide people toward truth and virtue. Socrates asks the people to do if his sons forget about virtue they should criticize and correct his sons as he did with others.

The jury, however, found Socrates guilty. He says fearing death is ignorance because no one knows if death is a bad thing or a blessing.

When asked to propose an alternative punishment, he suggested that he deserved to be honored rather than punished, which angered many. Finally, he was sentenced to death by drinking poison hemlock.

(from Benjamin Jowett’s translation 1899)

GRAMMAR

Nouns

A noun is the name of a person, place or thing. Note the nouns highlighted in the following sentences: Mahesh is a student. He lives in Delhi, the capital of India. Nouns are one of the most important parts of speech because they help us talk about the world around us.

Types of nouns

Nouns can be classified in many ways.

A common noun refers to a general name for a person, place, or thing; e.g., city, river, student, flower. These are not capitalised unless they begin a sentence. A proper noun User 1

names a specific person, place, or thing and always begins with a capital letter; eg. Kolkata. Amazon River, Amitabh Bachchan, Diwali.

Concrete nouns are things that can be seen, heard, touched, smelled, or tasted, e.g. pen, music, pizza. Abstract nouns are ideas or qualities that cannot be physically sensed, like freedom, courage, love.

Countable nouns refer to words for people, places, objects, etc. that can be counted. Such nouns can have singular or plural forms; e.g.. sister/sisters, town/towns, mouse/mice. These can be counted in numbers, as in two sisters or three towns. Uncountable nouns are concepts, substances, qualities etc. which cannot be counted because they can-not be divided into separate, individual elements; e.g., water, milk, bread, oil, happiness, information, etc. These usually do not have plural forms. Uncountable nouns can, how-ever, be quantified with the addition of countable nouns, as in a glass of water, one litre of milk, two loaves of bread, three bottles of oil, etc.

Exercises

A. Underline the nouns in the following passages. In each case, say whether they are proper nouns or common nouns, and if they are countable or uncountable.

1. Our sun is, in fact, a rather unimportant member of a huge system of stars, or galaxy, consisting of at least a hundred thousand million stars. We can see a part of this galaxy stretching across the sky as a pale white band of stars called the Milky Way. In India it is sometimes called the heavenly Ganga.

2. Tourists love the fort at Aurangabad as the ruins of some old fortifications stand in a beautiful manner on three hills. There is an old fort on the top of one of the hills, which can be reached by a narrow bridge that lies across a wide chasm between the hills. The sight is so splendid that one remembers it forever. The fortifications were built by the Maratha kings and are great feats of engineering skill; they are almost wonders to modern humans.

B. Rewrite the following sentences by changing the uncountable nouns into countable forms using suitable units or expressions (without changing the nouns).

1. He drank water after the match.

2. I need to buy furniture for my new house.

. We had cheese and crackers for lunch.

-. She shared advice with her younger sister.

- I packed some rice for the trip.

- He received news from his friend.

We saw art at the museum.

The shop sells soap and chocolate.

English Spelling I

In the English language, there are only 26 letters but 44 unique sounds. Spelling in English is therefore not phonetic. That is, the letters often do not conform to the sounds of speech One letter may stand for more than one sound and one sound may be expressed by more than one letter. For instance-

The letter u represents four different sounds in the words put, but, busy, unity.

The sound /e/ can be represented by many different letters: e in real, a in many, ay in rays, ai in said, ea in bread, u in bury, ue in guest, ei in leisure, ie in friend, etc.

The sound /k/ can be denoted by the letters k, c, ck, ch and qu: e.g., kind, can, sick, chorus, queen.

Sometimes a letter does not express any sound, e.g., k in knowledge, s in island, g in gnaw, p in psychology, b in doubt, gh in daughter, d in judge and so on.

English spelling involves rules and patterns, but it also has many exceptions. You will learn about these rules and patterns, as well as common exceptions, in later chapters.

Tips for improving spelling

Practice: Regularly writing and reviewing words can improve spelling.

Dictionary: Keep a dictionary handy to check spellings and meanings.

Spelling tests: Regularly test yourself on spellings to identify areas for improvement.

Learn common mistakes: Be aware of frequently misspelled words.

Focus on patterns: Learn common spelling patterns and rules.

Proofread: Always re-read your writing carefully to catch spelling errors.

Unit 1

Exercises

A. Spot and correct the spelling mistake(s) in each sentence below.

1. She is very careful about hygeine.

2. It is fasinating to learn how the equipment works.

3. We enjoyed his intresting anecdotes.

4. My neice works in the hospital laboratry.

5. The principle and staff gave a beautiful momento to the teacher who was retiring.

6. The child watched the mecanic with inpatience.

B. Pick the correct spelling from the three options given for each word.

1. comitioner, commissioner, commishioner

6. princepal, principel, principal

2. nefew, nephew, nephew

7. allotted, aloted, alloted

3. curiousity, quriosity, curiosity

8. excert, ecsert, exert

4. perceive, perceive, persieve

9. dialog, dialogue, dialoug

5. humuor, humour, huemer

10. building, billding, building

C. Complete each sentence using the correct spelling of the words given in brackets.

1. The people were (innoculated) against the (desease).

2. A good (calender) is (indispensible) for efficient time management.

3. Last year's harvest (exceded) (exceptations). This year, however, the bad (whether) will result in a (dissapointing) (yeild).

4. He copied from the work of an (amature) writer, but his (plagerism) was soon discovered.

5. Their economy has grown; (our's) has been (comparitively) (stagnent).

5. Please save the (reciept) of this (tranzaction) for future (refrence).

PRONUNCIATION

Unit 1 Pronunciation

Consonant Sounds I

Consonant Sounds I

Consonant sounds are those that are produced through either a closure or a narrowing of The air passage in the mouth. The 24 consonant sounds in most English accents are given below. Note that we are talking about sounds, not letters.

English alphabet has 26 letters.Total sounds are 44.There are 24 consonants and 20 vowels

Consonant sounds are 24.

Consonant Sounds

				/p/	Pen, reply, rap
				/b/	bat, table, job
				/t/	ten, attain, pit
				/d/	do, ladder, mad
				/k/	cat, clock, walk
				/g/	get, ago, bug
				/tʃ/	church, catch, match
				/dʒ/	judge, barged, large
				/f/	fan, coffee, rough,
				/v/	van, heavy, dive
				/θ/	three, author, cloth
				/ð/	that, brother, smooth
				/s/	sin, cease, bus
				/z/	zip, music, buzz
				/ʃ/	shine sure, dash
				/ʒ/	pleasure, leisure
				/h/	hen, have,
				/m/	more, hammer, dam
				/n/	neat, many, sun
				/ŋ/	king, sing
				/l/	leaf, plate, feel
				/r/	rat, career
				/j/	you, pure
				/w/	water, between

Exercises

Exercise

A. Consonant sounds may appear in the beginning, middle, or at the end of a word. For each of the consonant sounds given below, mention two words in which the sounds appear in the initial, medial and final positions, as shown in the example.

/p/ pet

/f/ father

/t/ table

/k/ coop

/b/ bag

date

/g/ gap

/v/ van

/d/

/s/ see

ship

/tf/ chair

/0/ thick

/z/ zip

/3/ closure

/dz/ job

/ð/ then

/l/ lamp

/m/ mother

/n/ nap

/n/ king

/h/ hat

/r/ read

/w/ went

/j/ yesterday

/p/ initial position: page, pen; medial position: upper, captain; final position: map, tape

1. /b/

3. /al

5./9/

7. /m/

11. /dy/

12.//

B. From the two options given alongside each word, identify the correct phonemic symbol of the consonant sound highlighted in the word.

10.

8. author

(a) /8/ (b)/9/

1. faith (a) // (b)/6/

(a) (b) //

9. lose

(a) / (b) /s/

2. shade

(a) // (b)/8/

10. gentle

(a) (g) (b) (d

3. bother

(a) (b) //

11. division

(a) (b) //

4. machine

(a) (b)

12. soldier

(a) / (b) //

5. leisure

(a) // (b) /

13. bathe

(a) /8/ (b)/9/

7. voice

6. dessert

(a) // (b) (w/

14. lace

(a) // (b) //

C. Fill in the gaps with the phonemic symbols of the missing consonant sounds. Each gap represents one pure consonant sound.

1. hunger

/h_ga/

2. shimmer

8. always

9. wrist

3. yellow_elau/

4. judge

10. carry

5. chain

6. university_unt

3 sa

7. one

ein/

Unit 2 poetry

The Solitary Reaper

By William Wordsworth

Behold her, single in the field,

Yon solitary Highland Lass!

Reaping and singing by herself;

Stop here, or gently pass!

Alone she cuts and binds the grain,

And sings a melancholy strain;

O listen! for the Vale profound

Is overflowing with the sound.

No Nightingale did ever chaunt

More welcome notes to weary bands

Of travellers in some shady haunt,

Among Arabian sands:

A voice so thrilling ne'er was heard

In spring-time from the Cuckoo-bird,

Breaking the silence of the seas

Among the farthest Hebrides.

Will no one tell me what she sings?—

Perhaps the plaintive numbers flow

For old, unhappy, far-off things,

And battles long ago:

Or is it some more humble lay,

Familiar matter of to-day?

Some natural sorrow, loss, or pain,

That has been, and may be again?

Whate'er the theme, the Maiden sang

As if her song could have no ending;

I saw her singing at her work,

And o'er the sickle bending;—

I listened, motionless and still;

And, as I mounted up the hill,

The music in my heart I bore,

Long after it was heard no more.

The Solitary Reaper (1807) – William Wordsworth

Stanza 1

Behold her, single in the field, / Yon solitary Highland Lass! / Reaping and singing by herself; / Stop here, or gently pass!

Look at that lone girl working in the field. She’s a Highland lass (Scottish girl), cutting crops and singing all alone. The poet asks the passerby either to pause and listen or to walk quietly without disturbing her.

Alone she cuts and binds the grain, / And sings a melancholy strain; / O listen! for the Vale profound / Is overflowing with the sound.

She is reaping (cutting) and binding the crop by herself while singing a sad song. Her voice fills the entire valley with music.

Stanza 2

No Nightingale did ever chaunt / More welcome notes to weary bands / Of travellers in some shady haunt, / Among Arabian sands:

Her song is sweeter than the Nightingale’s, which comforts tired travelers in the Arabian desert.

A voice so thrilling ne’er was heard / In spring-time from the Cuckoo-bird, / Breaking the silence of the seas / Among the farthest Hebrides.

Her voice is also more moving than the cuckoo’s cry, which delights people in the lonely Hebrides islands of Scotland.

Stanza 3

Will no one tell me what she sings?— / Perhaps the plaintive numbers flow / For old, unhappy, far-off things, / And battles long ago:

The poet wonders what she is singing about. Perhaps it is some sad song about past events, sorrows, or battles from history.

Or is it some more humble lay, / Familiar matter of to-day? / Some natural sorrow, loss, or pain, / That has been, and may be again?

Or maybe her song is about common daily struggles—grief, loss, or pain—that ordinary people often face.

Stanza 4

Whate’er the theme, the Maiden sang / As if her song could have no ending; / I saw her singing at her work, / And o’er the sickle bending;

Whatever the subject, she sang endlessly, pouring her heart into the song while working with her sickle (cutting tool).

I listened, motionless and still; / And, as I mounted up the hill, / The music in my heart I bore, / Long after it was heard no more.

The poet stood still, captivated. As he left and climbed the hill, the music remained in his heart long after it faded from his ears.

Structure

Form: Lyrical ballad (4 stanzas of 8 lines each).

Analysis

1. Theme of Nature & Human Connection: The Highland girl’s song merges with the natural surroundings, showing Wordsworth’s love of simplicity and rural life.

2. Mystery of Art: The poet doesn’t understand the language of her song, yet it deeply moves him. This shows the universal power of music and poetry.

3. Imagination: Wordsworth speculates about her song—maybe history, maybe personal sorrow. His imagination transforms her simple act into something eternal.

4. Romanticism: Emphasis on emotion, solitude, nature, and the unknown—hallmarks of Romantic poetry.

5. Memory & Emotion: Even after leaving, the memory of the song lingers in his heart, illustrating Wordsworth’s idea of poetry as “emotion recollected in tranquility.”

Glossary

Behold – Look at, observe.

Solitary – Alone, without company.

Highland Lass – A young Scottish girl from the Highlands.

Reaping – Cutting crops when they are ripe.

Melancholy strain – A sad song or tune.

Vale profound – A deep valley.

Chaunt – Old spelling of chant, meaning to sing.

Arabian sands – Deserts of Arabia.

Hebrides – Remote islands off the coast of Scotland.

Plaintive numbers – Sad verses or lines of song.

Lay – A simple song or ballad.

Sickle – A curved blade used for cutting grain.

Motionless and still – Completely unmoving, lost in listening.

Detailed Analysis

William Wordsworth (1770–1850), a central figure of the Romantic Movement, believed that poetry should express deep emotions inspired by nature and ordinary life. His famous work Lyrical Ballads (1798), co-authored with Coleridge, marked a turning point in English poetry. Wordsworth emphasized simplicity, emotional intensity, and the spiritual connection between humans and nature.

The Solitary Reaper reflects these ideals. The poem describes a Highland girl reaping grain alone while singing a sorrowful song. Though the poet cannot understand the words, he is deeply moved by its haunting beauty. He compares her voice to the nightingale that comforts weary desert travelers and the cuckoo bird that breaks the silence of the Hebrides. These comparisons highlight the universality of music that transcends language barriers.

Wordsworth speculates on the theme of her song: perhaps it is about historical battles, past sorrows, or ordinary human suffering. Regardless of its subject, the song leaves a lasting impression on him. The poem celebrates the power of art and music to evoke emotions beyond intellectual comprehension.

Structurally, the ballad form with its musical rhyme scheme mirrors the song itself. The imagery of nature, solitude, and lingering memory ties the poem to Romantic ideals. Importantly, the experience is not fleeting—the song remains in the poet’s heart long after it fades.

Thus, The Solitary Reaper is not merely about a girl singing; it is about how simple, natural beauty can touch the soul and live forever in memory.

Unit 2 Prose

The Old Tiger and the Traveller - from the Hitopadesa

Translated by A.W. Ryder

About the Translator

Arthur William Ryder (1877–1938) was an American scholar of Sanskrit and Professor of Sanskrit at Harvard University and later at the University of California. Ryder translated many Sanskrit works into English such as the Panchatantra, Hitopadesa, the Bhagavad Gita, Sudraka’s Mṛcchakaṭika, Dandin’s Daśakumāracarita, and works of Kalidasa and Bhartrihari.

Ryder's translations are scholarly yet not pedantic, and are marked by wit, felicity and idiomatic style. The story ‘The Old Tiger and the Traveller’ is from the Hitopadesa, originally written by Narayana, and translated into English by A.W. Ryder.

About the story

The story “The Old Tiger and the Traveller” is a moral tale from the Hitopadesa. The story is set in a southern forest where an old tiger sits near a pond holding a golden bracelet .An old tiger, pretending to be pious, sits near a pond with a golden bracelet. He calls out to travellers, offering golden bracelet as a gift. Most people avoid him, but one greedy traveller is tempted. Although he suspects danger, his desire for the bracelet makes him take the risk. Fortune favours the bold, according to the proverb quoted.

The tiger says that in his youth he was wicked and cruel, but later a pious man taught him religion. Now, being old and toothless, he claims to practise charity and virtue. Eight cardinal virtues are mentioned by the old Tiger. The cardinal virtues mentioned are: gifts to God’s creatures, gifts to God, study, penance, self-restraint, absence of greed, lack of fraud, and patience. The first four may be practised outwardly without sincerity, but the last four are found only in those whose hearts are truly pure.The tiger claims to have developed charity, self-control, and mercy after turning religious.

The traveller, lured by greed, enters the pond to bathe before receiving the bracelet. Unfortunately, he gets stuck in the mud, and the tiger seizes the chance to kill and eat him. The moral of the story is that greed leads to destruction. Thus, the story warns us not to fall for temptations offered by untrustworthy people. The tiger’s behaviour can be seen in two ways. From a human moral perspective, it appears evil because he deceives and kills an innocent traveller through trickery. However, from the perspective of nature, it reflects natural law: a tiger is a predator, and it survives by killing weaker beings. The story uses the tiger symbolically to show that deceptive and greedy people in human society behave in the same way

Textbook questions

Comprehension

A. Answer the following questions in one or two lines

1. Name the author and the translator of ‘The Old Tiger and the Traveller’.

The story is from the Hitopadesa (by Narayana) and translated into English by A.W. Ryder.

2. What is the setting of the story?

The story is set in a southern forest where an old tiger sits near a pond holding a golden bracelet.

3. Who calls the traveller and why?

The old tiger calls the traveller, pretending to offer him a golden bracelet as charity.

4. Why is the wayfarer described as ‘greedy’?

Because, despite his fear and doubts, he risks his life to get the golden bracelet.

5. What involves ‘a certain risk’?

Winning or gaining a good thing always involves some risk.

6. Who favours the bold according to the text?

Fortune favours the bold, according to the proverb quoted.

7. How many cardinal virtues are mentioned?

Eight cardinal virtues are mentioned.

8. How many virtues are practised for show?

Four virtues are practised for show without sincerity.

9. What quality did the tiger claim to have developed?

The tiger claimed to have developed charity, self-control, and mercy after turning religious.

10. What did the tiger promise the traveller?

The tiger promised to give the traveller a golden bracelet as a gift.

B. Answer the following questions in about 50 words

1. List the cardinal virtues mentioned in the story.

The cardinal virtues mentioned are: gifts to God’s creatures, gifts to God, study, penance, self-restraint, absence of greed, lack of fraud, and patience. The text explains that the first four may be practised outwardly without sincerity, but the last four are found only in those whose hearts are truly pure.

2. How does the old tiger justify his gift to the traveller?

The tiger says that in his youth he was wicked and cruel, but later a pious man taught him religion. Now, being old and toothless, he claims to practise charity and virtue. To prove his sincerity, he offers the golden bracelet to the poor traveller as a gift.

C. Answer the following questions in about 200 words

1. Summarise the story in your own words.

The story “The Old Tiger and the Traveller” is a moral tale from the Hitopadesa. An old tiger, pretending to be pious, sits near a pond with a golden bracelet. He calls out to travellers, offering it as a gift. Most people avoid him, but one greedy traveller is tempted. Although he suspects danger, his desire for the bracelet makes him take the risk. The tiger convinces him by speaking about virtues and charity. The traveller, lured by greed, enters the pond to bathe before receiving the bracelet. Unfortunately, he gets stuck in the mud, and the tiger seizes the chance to kill and eat him. The story teaches that greed makes people blind to danger and that one should never trust deceitful appearances.

2. Explain the moral of the story with reference to context.

The moral of the story is that greed leads to destruction. The traveller, though aware of the risk, ignores his doubts for the sake of the golden bracelet. The tiger cleverly uses religious talk and moral values to deceive him. The blessing of wealth turns into a curse when gained in the wrong way. Thus, the story warns us not to fall for temptations offered by untrustworthy people.

3. Discuss whether the tiger’s behaviour is purely evil, or if it reflects natural law.

The tiger’s behaviour can be seen in two ways. From a human moral perspective, it appears evil because he deceives and kills an innocent traveller through trickery. However, from the perspective of nature, it reflects natural law: a tiger is a predator, and it survives by killing weaker beings. The story uses the tiger symbolically to show that deceptive and greedy people in human society behave in the same way. In this sense, the tiger is both a literal predator and a moral symbol of cunning and greed.

GRAMMAR

Pronouns

Pronouns are the words that replace nouns to avoid repetition and make sentences flow more smoothly. They can refer to people, places, things, or ideas.

Types of pronouns

Personal pronouns refer to specific people or things: I, you, he, she, it, we, they She is going to the market.

They called us yesterday.

Is this pen yours? Possessive pronouns indicate ownership: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs That book is mine.

Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of the sentence: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves I hurt myself while playing.

They enjoyed themselves at the party.

Demonstrative pronouns point out specific things: this, that, these, those This is my bag. Those are my shoes.

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions: who, whom, which, what Who is at the door?

Which colour do you like?

Relative pronouns introduce a relative clause: who, whom, which, that, whose This is the book that I borrowed.

The girl who won the prize is my cousin.

Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific things or people: all, some, none, many, few, each, either, neither, everyone, someone, anybody, something, anything, everything Someone left their bag here. Many were absent today.

Exercises

A. Complete the sentences using the correct option from those given in brackets.

1. The letter is-------(my / mine / me).

Ans:- mine

2. I hurt-------(itself / self / myself).

Ans :- myself

3 . (He/Him)------is a better dancer than

(she/her/hers) is.

Ans :- He, she

4. (Who/Whom)-----is at the door?

Ans :- who

5. There is a lunch box on the table. Is----(it/its) yours?

Ans :- it

6. The dog tripped over-------(its self / itself).

Ans :-itself

7. Naina was all by (yourself/herself / her).

Ans :- herself

8. I got------ (me / myself) all wet.

Ans :- myself

9. (That/this)------ bag lying here is-----(her/hers).

Ans :- That

10. (Each/Those / Some)----- of us was given a return gift.

Ans :- Each

. Fill in the blanks with suitable pronouns.

1.If anyone asks, tell ------I will be back tomorrow.

Ans :- them

2.Fatima said that------- and her sister work together.

Ans :- she

3.Rohan wants to do it by----.

Ans :- himself

-4. There is no 'us' and----. ----' are all in it together.

Ans :- them

5.They cooked the meat in----- own juices.

Ans :- their

PRONUNCIATION

Consonant Sounds II

Consonant clusters are two or more consonant sounds that come together within a syllable /fr/ in 'free' and

Note that a consonant cluster consists of a sequence of consonant sounds that are a part of the same syllable. Consonant clusters are thus different from sequences of two consonants that belong to different syllables.

For example, the word 'mus.tard' has the letters 's' and 't' coming one after the other, but the corresponding sounds do not form the consonant cluster /st/ because they are a part of different syllables.

When pronounced correctly, each individual consonant sound within the cluster can be heard distinctly. The /s/, /p/ and // of the consonant cluster/spr/ can be heard clearly when saying the word 'spray' out loud.

Because some of these consonant clusters do not occur in Indian languages, speakers of Indian languages sometimes break them up by inserting vowel sounds. For example, some Indians pronounce /sku:l/ ('school') as either /1s.ku:l/ or /sə.ku:l/. Learning to sound out consonant clusters plays a big role in correct pronunciation and speech fluency, es-pecially for those who are learning English as a second language or a foreign language.

Many different consonant clusters are possible in the various dialects of English. These are usually found at the beginning of a word (e.g., the /str/ in 'street') or at the end of words (e.g., the /lvd/ in 'solved'). Clusters at the beginning of words are either two conso-nants long (e.g., /sk/ in 'scold') or three consonants long (e.g., /skr/ in 'scream'). At the end of a word, a cluster can be up to four consonants long (e.g., /fes/ at the end of 'twelfths'), thus resulting in a large number of possibilities.

Given below are a few common consonant clusters, along with examples of words they appear in. This is not an exhaustive list. Practise saying each sound out loud.

/pl/ play, apply

/pr/ pray, surprise

/pj/ pure, computer

/bl/ blue, emblem

/br/ brave, cobra

/bj/ beauty

/mj/ mute, amuse

/nj/ new, manure

/hj/ huge, inhuman

/spl/ splash

/spr/ spray, offspring

/str/ strong, astray

Poetry - Unit 3

Frost at Midnight

By Samuel Taylor Coleridge

The Frost performs its secret ministry,

Unhelped by any wind. The owlet's cry

Came loud—and hark, again! loud as before.

The inmates of my cottage, all at rest,

Have left me to that solitude, which suits

Abstruser musings: save that at my side

My cradled infant slumbers peacefully.

'Tis calm indeed! so calm, that it disturbs

And vexes meditation with its strange

And extreme silentness. Sea, hill, and wood,

This populous village! Sea, and hill, and wood,

With all the numberless goings-on of life,

Inaudible as dreams! the thin blue flame

Lies on my low-burnt fire, and quivers not;

Only that film, which fluttered on the grate,

Still flutters there, the sole unquiet thing.

Methinks, its motion in this hush of nature

Gives it dim sympathies with me who live,

Making it a companionable form,

Whose puny flaps and freaks the idling Spirit

By its own moods interprets, every where

Echo or mirror seeking of itself,

And makes a toy of Thought.

But O! how oft,

How oft, at school, with most believing mind,

Presageful, have I gazed upon the bars,

To watch that fluttering stranger ! and as oft

With unclosed lids, already had I dreamt

Of my sweet birth-place, and the old church-tower,

Whose bells, the poor man's only music, rang

From morn to evening, all the hot Fair-day,

So sweetly, that they stirred and haunted me

With a wild pleasure, falling on mine ear

Most like articulate sounds of things to come!

So gazed I, till the soothing things, I dreamt,

Lulled me to sleep, and sleep prolonged my dreams!

And so I brooded all the following morn,

Awed by the stern preceptor's face, mine eye

Fixed with mock study on my swimming book:

Save if the door half opened, and I snatched

A hasty glance, and still my heart leaped up,

For still I hoped to see the stranger's face,

Townsman, or aunt, or sister more beloved,

My play-mate when we both were clothed alike!

Dear Babe, that sleepest cradled by my side,

Whose gentle breathings, heard in this deep calm,

Fill up the intersperséd vacancies

And momentary pauses of the thought!

My babe so beautiful! it thrills my heart

With tender gladness, thus to look at thee,

And think that thou shalt learn far other lore,

And in far other scenes! For I was reared

In the great city, pent 'mid cloisters dim,

And saw nought lovely but the sky and stars.

But thou, my babe! shalt wander like a breeze

By lakes and sandy shores, beneath the crags

Of ancient mountain, and beneath the clouds,

Which image in their bulk both lakes and shores

And mountain crags: so shalt thou see and hear

The lovely shapes and sounds intelligible

Of that eternal language, which thy God

Utters, who from eternity doth teach

Himself in all, and all things in himself.

Great universal Teacher! he shall mould

Thy spirit, and by giving make it ask.

Therefore all seasons shall be sweet to thee,

Whether the summer clothe the general earth

With greenness, or the redbreast sit and sing

Betwixt the tufts of snow on the bare branch

Of mossy apple-tree, while the nigh thatch

Smokes in the sun-thaw; whether the eave-drops fall

Heard only in the trances of the blast,

Or if the secret ministry of frost

Shall hang them up in silent icicles,

Quietly shining to the quiet Moon

Summary of the Poem

About the poet

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) was a major English poet, critic and educationist. He wrote essays and gave lectures on philosophy, religion and literature. He collaborated with Wordsworth on Lyrical Ballads (1798), a foundational work in British Romanticism. His most well-known works are Biographia Literaria, which combines autobiography with literary criticism, and the poems The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, 'Christabel' and 'Kubla Khan.

About the poem:-

“Frost at Midnight” is a seventy-four-line “conversation” poem with four-stanza, written in 1798.It is written as a soliloquy, where Coleridge speaks his thoughts aloud to his infant son, Hartley. The poem begins with Coleridge’s midnight thoughts, moves into his memories of schooldays, then shifts to his tender hopes for his child’s future. He prays that his son will grow up surrounded by nature, learning directly from God’s universal language through the beauty of seasons.

The poem shows the poet’s thoughts at midnight while sitting quietly in his cottage. Everyone is asleep, leaving the poet alone in deep solitude, The scene is calm and silent, with only his baby sleeping peacefully beside him and a faint flame burning in the fireplace. This silence makes Coleridge’s imagination wander.

The poet then remembers his own childhood. At school, he often sat dreaming of his home village and the church bells that rang during village fairs. He longed for freedom and for the company of family members or friends, but instead felt lonely and restricted by the city life and strict schooling.

Turning back to the present, Coleridge looks lovingly at his infant son. He feels joy that his child will grow up in a much better environment, surrounded by nature. Unlike the poet’s own childhood in the city, the child will learn directly from lakes, mountains, clouds, stars, and the changing seasons. Coleridge sees nature as God’s “universal language” and the “great teacher” that shapes the human spirit and connects people with divine truth.

The poem ends with a blessing for the child: in every season, whether summer’s greenery, winter’s robins, or frost’s silent icicles shining in the moonlight, he will find beauty and joy.

In short, the poem combines personal memory, deep love for his child, and Romantic faith in nature. It shows Coleridge’s belief that nature is not only beautiful but also a spiritual guide.

Prose :- Unit 3

Mr. Sherlock Holmes

Arthur Conan Doyle

About the author

Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930) was a British writer and doctor. He created the world-famous detective Sherlock Holmes. Conan Doyle's most famous works include The Hound of Baskervilles, The Sign of Four, The Lost World, The Valley of Fear, and non-fiction works sach as The Crime of the Congo (1909), written about Belgium's atrocities and human rights violations in the Congo.

Verbs

the three basic types of verbs in the

Action verbs express physical or mental actions.

Fouzia plays hockey.

I tasted the biryani.

We visited Golconda yesterday.

Linking verbs connect the subject to the rest of the sentence.

Fouzia is a hockey player.

The biryani tastes good.

We were at Golconda yesterday.

Linking verbs are followed by phrases which give information about the subject. In the examples above, note how the verb does not express an action that a person is doing, but instead says something about the subject or a state of being

Auxiliary verbs appear in front of action verbs and linking verbs.

Fouzia is playing hockey.

The biryani should taste good.

We could visit Golconda again today.

In the examples above, note how the auxiliary verb is placed before the (underlined) action verb or linking verb.

Auxiliary verbs are also known as helping verbs because they 'help' other verbs express nuances such as tenses, moods and voices. The three main auxiliary verbs are be, have, and do (and each of their various forms: am, has, did, etc.). Helping verbs that express possibility or obligation are referred to as modal auxiliary verbs. These include can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must, and ought.

A verb can function as an action or linking verb in some cases, but as an auxiliary verb in other cases. This is often true for the various forms of the verb be (is, was, been, being, etc.)

Fouzia is a hockey player.

Verb is links subject to rest of sentence

Fouzia is playing hockey.

Verb is acts as auxiliary to the verb "playing

rther

A. Fill in the blanks with verbs chosen from the list below, using each option

once. Say what type of verb it is.

cycles, would have been, can, should have been, thinks, could, guess, should, brainstormed, have been

1. The team ------new ideas

2. Anjali -------speak three languages fluently.

3. He------ late if he hadn't taken a shortcut.

4. Can you------what's inside the box?

5. The results ------ announced by now.

6. The teacher ----hear music from the next room.

7.1------ feeling better lately.

8.Guna------ in the park.

9. She ------deeply about every decision.

10. Rachana------ apologise for her mistake.

Ans:-1.brainstormed 2) can 3) would have been 4) guess 5) should have been announced 6) could 7) have been 8) cycles 9 ) thinks 20) should

B. Fill in the blanks with linking verbs. There may be more than one correct answer

1. This---------- the solution we've been looking for.

Ans :- is

2. Your explanations-------------,quite vague.

Ans :-

3. We -----ready by 5 p.m. if we hurry.

Ans :-

4. That noise -------to be coming from the basement.

Ans :-

5. She------ the one who left the door open.

Ans :-

6. Kamala----- ill just before the exam.

Ans :-

7. This project -------challenging, but it's worth doing.

Ans :-

8. He----- the winner if he had tried harder.

Ans :-

C. Identify the auxiliary verbs in the following sentences.

1. They have been waiting for over an hour.

2. You should see a doctor about that cough.

3. I do not agree with that opinion.

4. We must complete the project before Friday.

5. I can help you with your assignment.

6. The players were practising early in the morning.

7. He does seem upset about the result.

8.You might have left your keys at the café.

Synonyms

A synonym is a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase in the same language.

Word

Synonyms

Word

Synonyms

happy

joyful, glad, cheerful

big

large, huge, great

quick

fast, rapid, swift

beautiful

pretty, lovely, attractive

smart

intelligent, bright, clever

sad

unhappy, sorrowful, glum

difficult

hard, challenging, tough

angry

furious, enraged, livid

You can use a thesaurus to find synonyms of words. Knowing synonyms helps you choose the most appropriate word to express your thoughts.

Exercises

A. Match the words in the column on the left to their synonyms on the right.

1. brave a. distress

2. trouble b. sprint

3. strange C.narrate

4. scared d. peaceful

5. race e.produce

6. display f. panicked

7. recount g. courageous.

8. tranquil h. recent

9. current I. exhibit

10. manufacture j. peculiar

Ans :- 1.g 2.a 3) j 4) f 5) b 6) I 7) c 8) d 9) h 10) e

B. Complete the sentences using words that mean the same as those in brackets. Note that there may be more than one correct answer.

1. She ------(rarely) plays the violin now.

Ans:-seldom

2. It was a------ (hazardous) journey. We were lucky to have escaped unharmed.

Ans:-dangerous

3. I had to be away from office because of------ (pressing) personal work.

Ans:-urgent

4. We -----(craved) for a cold drink after the long walk in the heat.

Ans:-longed

5. What a ------(pitiless) man you are!

Ans:- merciless

unit 4

I taste a liquor never brewed

Emily Dickinson

I taste a liquor never brewed –

From Tankards scooped in Pearl –

Not all the Frankfort Berries

Yield such an Alcohol!

Inebriate of air – am I –

And Debauchee of Dew –

Reeling – thro’ endless summer days –

From inns of molten Blue –

When “Landlords” turn the drunken Bee

Out of the Foxglove’s door –

When Butterflies – renounce their “drams” –

I shall but drink the more!

Till Seraphs swing their snowy Hats –

And Saints – to windows run –

To see the little Tippler

Leaning against the – Sun!

One-line answer questions

What does the speaker mean by “liquor never brewed”?
She refers to the intoxicating beauty of nature, which is far superior to any man-made drink.
Explain the image of ‘tankards scooped in pearl’.
It suggests dewdrops on flowers and grass, compared to sparkling pearl-filled drinking cups.
Why does the phrase ‘inebriate air’ amuse us?
It humorously presents air as if it were alcohol, showing the speaker’s joyous intoxication with nature.
What does the speaker describe herself as?
She calls herself a “debauchee of dew,” meaning she freely indulges in nature’s beauty.
What are the ‘endless summer days’ symbolic of?
They symbolize eternal joy, happiness, and the abundance of nature.
What is the significance of the ‘drunken bee’?
It represents creatures that, like the speaker, overindulge in nature’s nectar and delights.
What is the significance of the ‘foxglove’s door’?
It refers to the flower where bees and butterflies often gather, symbolizing nature’s tavern.
What is the significance of ‘seraphs’ and ‘saints’?
They show that even heavenly beings witness and approve of the speaker’s ecstatic love for nature.
What role do seraphs and saints play?
They lean out of windows in admiration, as if watching the speaker’s joyful celebration of nature.
Who is the ‘little tippler’ and what does her position ‘against the sun’ signify?
The speaker herself is the “little tippler,” and her position shows her infinite joy and spiritual intoxication with the beauty of creation.

Summary:-

About the Poet-

Emily Dickinson (1830–1886) was one of America’s greatest poets. She lived as a recluse and very few of her poems were published during her lifetime. She wrote in a unique style of her own, very different from that of conventional then-contemporary poetry. She was known for her unique style, use of dashes, slant rhymes. Death, immortality, nature and spirituality are recurring themes in her poetry. She wrote nearly 1,800 poems, though only a few were published during her lifetime.

About the Poem- The poem is a lyric poem containing 4 quatrains (four-line stanzas). Rhyme Scheme is alternating rhyme, mostly ABCB pattern. The title “I taste a liquor never brewed” is symbolic. It suggests the poet is intoxicated, but not by human-made wine. Instead, she drinks in the beauty of nature and divine inspiration, which is purer and more eternal than any real alcohol. Using the metaphor of intoxication, Dickinson describes herself as drunk, not on human-made wine, but on the pure beauty of the natural world. She says she drinks from cups not made by humans but by the natural world itself. Even the best grapes (Frankfort refers to German wine) cannot produce such a fine drink. Nature’s beauty is greater than any man-made wine. She is drunk, but not with real wine. She is intoxicated with the fresh air. She playfully calls herself a “debauchee” (a person who overindulges), but instead of alcohol, she overindulges in the morning dew – pure and natural. While insects eventually stop sipping nectar, she continues to drink endlessly from the beauty around her. Her intoxication is spiritual and eternal, not physical.

Toward the end, she imagines angels and saints watching her with wonder as she stands, drunk with life, leaning against the sun itself. This image shows her deep sense of connection with nature and the divine.

The poem is playful yet profound. It celebrates how nature can give a sense of ecstasy beyond any human pleasure. Dickinson turns the idea of drunkenness into a metaphor for spiritual fulfillment and joy.

Glossary:-

Brew- /bruː/make (beer) by soaking, boiling, and fermentation ఉడకబెట్టడం మరియు పులియబెట్టడం ద్వారా (బీర్) చేయడ0

Recluse – ఒంటరి a person who lives alone and avoids going outside or talking to other people

Immortality - అమరత్వం the quality of being able to live or last forever

Intoxication – మత్తు / నిషా. the condition of having lost some control of your actions or behaviour under the influence of a drug

eternal - నిత్యమైన శాశ్వతమైన

Debauchee – /ˌdeb.ɔːˈtʃiː - one who drinks too much alcohol, takes drugs, shows bad sexual behaviour, etc.) త్రాగుబోతు వ్యభిచారి

Overindulges - అతిగా ఆస్వాదిచడం to indulge (someone, or something) too much

Profound - ప్రగాఢమైన felt or experienced very strongly or in an extreme way

ecstasy – /ˈek.stə.si/ a state of extreme happiness. గొప్ప ఆనందం లేదా ఆనందకరమైన ఉత్సాహం యొక్క అధిక అనుభూతి.

Prose :- Unit 4

To Build a Fire

Jack London

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